http://familydoctor.org/online/famdocen/home/women/reproductive/gynecologic/279.printerview.html

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/tutorials/ovariancysts/htm/index.htm

http://www.mayoclinic.com/print/ovarian-cysts/DS00129/DSECTION=all&METHOD=print

Ovarian cysts

Definition

Ovarian cysts are fluid-filled sacs or pockets within or on the surface of an ovary. The ovaries are two organs — each about the size and shape of an almond — located on each side of your uterus. Eggs (ova) develop and mature in the ovaries and are released in monthly cycles during your childbearing years.

Many women have ovarian cysts at some time during their lives. Most ovarian cysts present little or no discomfort and are harmless. The majority of ovarian cysts disappear without treatment within a few months.

However, ovarian cysts — especially those that have ruptured — sometimes produce serious symptoms. The best way to protect your health is to know the symptoms and types of ovarian cysts that may signal a more significant problem, and to schedule regular pelvic examinations.

Symptoms

CLICK TO ENLARGE

Female reproductive system

You can’t depend on symptoms alone to tell you if you have an ovarian cyst. In fact, you’ll likely have no symptoms at all. Or if you do, the symptoms may be similar to those of other conditions, such as endometriosis, pelvic inflammatory disease, ectopic pregnancy or ovarian cancer. Even appendicitis and diverticulitis can produce signs and symptoms that mimic a ruptured ovarian cyst.

Still, it’s important to be watchful of any symptoms or changes in your body and to know which symptoms are serious. If you have an ovarian cyst, you may experience the following signs and symptoms:

• Menstrual irregularities
• Pelvic pain — a constant or intermittent dull ache that may radiate to your lower back and thighs
• Pelvic pain shortly before your period begins or just before it ends
• Pelvic pain during intercourse (dyspareunia)
• Pain during bowel movements or pressure on your bowels
• Nausea, vomiting or breast tenderness similar to that experienced during pregnancy
• Fullness or heaviness in your abdomen
• Pressure on your rectum or bladder — difficulty emptying your bladder completely

The signs and symptoms that signal the need for immediate medical attention include:

• Sudden, severe abdominal or pelvic pain
• Pain accompanied by fever or vomiting

Causes

CLICK TO ENLARGE

	Normal ovary
	Follicular ovarian cyst
	Corpus luteum cyst

Your ovaries normally grow cyst-like structures called follicles each month. Follicles produce the hormones estrogen and progesterone and release an egg when you ovulate.

Sometimes a normal monthly follicle just keeps growing. When that happens, it becomes known as a functional cyst. This means it started during the normal function of your menstrual cycle. There are two types of functional cysts:

• Follicular cyst. Around the midpoint of your menstrual cycle, your brain’s pituitary gland releases a surge of luteinizing hormone (LH), which signals the follicle holding your egg to release it. When everything goes according to plan, your egg bursts out of its follicle and begins its journey down the fallopian tube in search of fertilization.

  A follicular cyst begins when the LH surge doesn’t occur. The result is a follicle that doesn’t rupture or release its egg. Instead it grows and turns into a cyst. Follicular cysts are usually harmless, rarely cause pain and often disappear on their own within two or three menstrual cycles.

• Corpus luteum cyst. When LH does surge and your egg is released, the ruptured follicle begins producing large quantities of estrogen and progesterone in preparation for conception. This changed follicle is now called the corpus luteum. Sometimes, however, the escape opening of the egg seals off and fluid accumulates inside the follicle, causing the corpus luteum to expand into a cyst.

  Although this cyst usually disappears on its own in a few weeks, it can grow to almost 4 inches in diameter and has the potential to bleed into itself or twist the ovary, causing pelvic or abdominal pain. If it fills with blood, the cyst may rupture, causing internal bleeding and sudden, sharp pain. The fertility drug clomiphene citrate (Clomid, Serophene), which is used to induce ovulation, increases the risk of a corpus luteum cyst developing after ovulation. These cysts don’t prevent or threaten a resulting pregnancy.

When to seek medical advice

If you experience severe or spasmodic pain in your lower abdomen, accompanied by fever and vomiting, see your doctor. These signs and symptoms — or those of shock such as cold, clammy skin, rapid breathing, and lightheadedness or weakness — indicate an emergency and require immediate medical attention.

Tests and diagnosis

A cyst on your ovary may be found during a pelvic exam. If a cyst is suspected, doctors often advise further testing to determine its type and whether you need treatment.

Typically, doctors address several questions to determine a diagnosis and to aid in management decisions:

• Shape. Is your cyst irregularly shaped?
• Size. What size is it?
• Composition. Is it filled with fluid, solid or mixed? Fluid-filled cysts aren’t likely to be cancerous. Those that are solid or mixed — filled with fluid and solid — may require further evaluation to determine if cancer is present.

To identify the type of cyst, your doctor may perform the following procedures:

• Pregnancy test. A positive pregnancy test may suggest that your cyst is a corpus luteum cyst, which can develop when the ruptured follicle that released your egg reseals and fills with fluid.
• Pelvic ultrasound. In this painless procedure, a wand-like device (transducer) is used to send and receive high-frequency sound waves (ultrasound). The transducer can be moved over your abdomen and inside your vagina, creating an image of your uterus and ovaries on a video screen. This image can then be photographed and analyzed by your doctor to confirm the presence of a cyst, help identify its location and determine whether it’s solid, filled with fluid or mixed.
• Laparoscopy. Using a laparoscope — a slim, lighted instrument inserted into your abdomen through a small incision — your doctor can see your ovaries and remove the ovarian cyst.
• CA 125 blood test. Blood levels of a protein called cancer antigen 125 (CA 125) often are elevated in women with ovarian cancer. If you develop an ovarian cyst that is partially solid and you are at high risk of ovarian cancer, your doctor may test the level of CA 125 in your blood to determine whether your cyst could be cancerous. Elevated CA 125 levels can also occur in noncancerous conditions, such as endometriosis, uterine fibroids and pelvic inflammatory disease.

Complications

A large ovarian cyst can cause abdominal discomfort. If a large cyst presses on your bladder, you may need to urinate more frequently because its capacity is reduced.

Some women develop less common types of cysts that may not produce symptoms, but that your doctor may find during a pelvic examination. Cystic ovarian masses that develop after menopause may be cancerous (malignant). These factors make regular pelvic examinations important.

The following types of cysts are much less common than functional cysts:

• Dermoid cysts. These cysts may contain tissue such as hair, skin or teeth because they form from cells that produce human eggs. They are rarely cancerous, but they can become large and cause painful twisting of your ovary.
• Endometriomas. These cysts develop as a result of endometriosis, a condition in which uterine cells grow outside your uterus. Some of that tissue may attach to your ovary and form a growth.
• Cystadenomas. These cysts develop from ovarian tissue and may be filled with a watery liquid or a mucous material. They can become large — 12 inches or more in diameter — and cause twisting of your ovary.

Treatments and drugs

Treatment depends on your age, the type and size of your cyst, and your symptoms. Your doctor may suggest:

• Watchful waiting. You can wait and be re-examined in one to three months if you’re in your reproductive years, you have no symptoms and an ultrasound shows you have a simple, fluid-filled cyst. Your doctor will likely recommend that you get follow-up pelvic ultrasounds at periodic intervals to see if your cyst has changed in size.

  Watchful waiting, including regular monitoring with ultrasound, is also a common treatment option recommended for postmenopausal women if a cyst is filled with fluid and is less than 2 centimeters in diameter.

• Birth control pills. Your doctor may recommend birth control pills to reduce the chance of new cysts developing in future menstrual cycles. Oral contraceptives offer the added benefit of significantly reducing your risk of ovarian cancer — the risk decreases the longer you take birth control pills.
• Surgery. Your doctor may suggest removal of a cyst if it is large, doesn’t look like a functional cyst, is growing or persists through two or three menstrual cycles. Cysts that cause pain or other symptoms may be removed.

  Some cysts can be removed without removing the ovary in a procedure known as a cystectomy. Your doctor may also suggest removing the affected ovary and leaving the other intact in a procedure known as oophorectomy. Both procedures may allow you to maintain your fertility if you’re still in your childbearing years. Leaving at least one ovary intact also has the benefit of maintaining a source of estrogen production.

  If a cystic mass is cancerous, however, your doctor will advise a hysterectomy to remove both ovaries and your uterus. After menopause, the risk of a newly found cystic ovarian mass being cancerous increases. As a result, doctors more commonly recommend surgery when a cystic mass develops on the ovaries after menopause.

Prevention

Although there’s no definite way to prevent the growth of ovarian cysts, regular pelvic examinations are a way to help ensure that changes in your ovaries are diagnosed as early as possible. In addition, be alert to changes in your monthly cycle, including symptoms that may accompany menstruation that aren’t typical for you or that persist over more than a few cycles. Be sure to talk with your doctor about any concerns relating to menstruation.

http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/reprint/297/5/554.pdf

http://www.mayoclinic.com/print/polycystic-ovary-syndrome/DS00423/DSECTION=all&METHOD=print

Polycystic ovary syndrome

Definition

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a common condition characterized by irregular menstrual periods, excess hair growth and obesity, though it can affect women in a variety of ways.

The exact cause of polycystic ovary syndrome is unknown, but the condition stems from a disruption in the monthly reproductive cycle. The name polycystic ovary syndrome comes from the appearance of the ovaries in some women with the disorder — large and studded with numerous cysts (polycystic).

Polycystic ovary syndrome affects about one in 10 women in the United States and is the leading cause of infertility in women. Early diagnosis and treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome can help reduce the risk of long-term complications, which include diabetes and heart disease.

Symptoms

CLICK TO ENLARGE

Polycystic ovary syndrome

Women with polycystic ovary syndrome usually have at least several of the many signs and symptoms associated with PCOS, including:

• Irregular or no menstruation. This is the most common characteristic. Irregular menstruation means having menstrual cycles that occur at intervals longer than 35 days or fewer than eight times a year. The condition may begin in adolescence with the onset of menstruation, or it may appear later after a weight gain.
• Signs of excess androgen. Elevated levels of male hormones may result in physical signs, such as long, coarse hair on your face, chest, lower abdomen, back, upper arms or upper legs (hirsutism); acne; and male-pattern baldness (alopecia). However, not all women who have polycystic ovary syndrome have physical signs of androgen excess.
• Enlarged ovaries with multiple cysts. Your doctor may detect ovarian cysts by ultrasound. However, you may have ovaries with multiple cysts but still not have polycystic ovary syndrome. And you may have PCOS but have ovaries that appear normal.
• Infertility. Polycystic ovary syndrome is the most common cause of female infertility in the United States.
• Obesity. It’s estimated that about half of women with polycystic ovary syndrome are obese.
• Skin tags. These small, excess growths of skin that are usually found on your neck or in your armpit are common in women with PCOS.
• Prediabetes or type 2 diabetes. The ability to use insulin effectively is impaired in PCOS and can result in high blood sugar levels and diabetes. Prediabetes is also called impaired glucose tolerance.
• Acanthosis nigricans. This is the medical term for darkened, velvety skin on the nape of your neck, armpits, inner thighs, vulva or under your breasts.

Additionally, the following are more likely to occur in women with PCOS:

• High blood pressure
• High blood cholesterol
• Elevated levels of C-reactive protein, which may be associated with cardiovascular problems
• Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, a liver disease
• Sleep apnea

Causes

The intricate process of a woman’s reproductive cycle is regulated by fluctuating levels of hormones produced by the pituitary gland in your brain, including luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and by your ovaries.

The ovaries secrete the female hormones estrogen and progesterone and also produce some androgens, the so-called male hormones. Androgens include testosterone, androstenedione and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA).

In polycystic ovary syndrome, your body produces an excess of androgens, and your ratio of LH to FSH is often abnormally high. The process of ovaries releasing eggs (ovulation) occurs less frequently than normal (oligo-ovulation), or the ovaries don’t release eggs at all (anovulation). In the absence of ovulation, the menstrual cycle is irregular or absent.

Doctors don’t know the cause of polycystic ovary syndrome, but research suggests a link to excess insulin, the hormone produced in the pancreas that allows cells to use sugar (glucose), your body’s primary energy supply. By several mechanisms, excess insulin is thought to boost androgen production by your ovaries. Studies also indicate that genetic factors may play a role in PCOS.

When to seek medical advice

Early diagnosis and treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome may help reduce your risk of long-term complications, such as diabetes and heart disease.

Talk with your doctor if you have irregular, scant or no menstrual periods, are overweight, and have acne or excess facial hair growth. Your doctor may refer you to a doctor who specializes in hormonal disorders (endocrinologist).

Tests and diagnosis

CLICK TO ENLARGE

Pelvic examination

There’s no specific test to definitively diagnose polycystic ovary syndrome. The diagnosis is one of exclusion, which means your doctor considers all of your signs and symptoms and then rules out other possible disorders.

Besides a complete physical examination, including a pelvic examination, other tests you may have include:

• Blood tests. Your blood may be drawn for laboratory tests to measure levels of several hormones. These may include testosterone, DHEA sulfate, luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), 17-hydroxy progesterone, prolactin, and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which triggers the release of thyroid hormone from the thyroid gland. Additional blood testing may include fasting glucose, cholesterol and triglyceride levels.
• Ultrasound. Your doctor may request a pelvic ultrasound to check your ovaries and the thickness of the lining of your uterus. Ultrasound exams are painless. While you relax on a bed or examining table, a wand-like device (transducer) is placed on your body or in your vagina (transvaginal ultrasound). It emits inaudible sound waves that are translated into images on a computer.

Complications

Having polycystic ovary syndrome puts you at increased risk of:

• Type 2 diabetes
• High blood pressure
• Increased triglycerides
• Decreased high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, the so-called “good” cholesterol
• Cardiovascular disease
• Metabolic syndrome, a cluster of signs and symptoms that indicate a significantly increased risk of cardiovascular disease

Because PCOS disrupts the reproductive cycle and exposes the uterus to a constant supply of estrogen, women with PCOS are at risk of:

• Abnormal uterine bleeding
• Cancer of the uterine lining (endometrial cancer)

Pregnancy concerns
You may need treatment with fertility medications to become pregnant if you have polycystic ovary syndrome. During pregnancy, you may be at increased risk of gestational diabetes and pregnancy-induced high blood pressure.

Treatments and drugs

Polycystic ovary syndrome treatment generally focuses on management of your individual main concerns, such as infertility, hirsutism, acne or obesity.

Long term, the most important aspect of treatment is managing cardiovascular risks, such as obesity, high blood cholesterol, diabetes and high blood pressure. To help guide ongoing treatment decisions, your doctor will likely want to see you for regular visits to perform a physical examination, measure your blood pressure and obtain fasting glucose and lipid levels.

You may benefit from counseling about healthy-eating choices and regular exercise. This is particularly important if you’re overweight. Obesity makes insulin resistance worse. Weight loss can reduce both insulin and androgen levels, and may restore ovulation. Ask your doctor to recommend a weight-control program, and meet regularly with a dietitian.

Your doctor may prescribe one or more medications to help manage the symptoms and risks associated with PCOS.

Medications for regulating your menstrual cycle
If you’re not trying to become pregnant, your doctor may prescribe low-dose oral contraceptives that combine synthetic estrogen and progesterone. They decrease androgen production and give your body a break from the effects of continuous estrogen. This decreases your risk of endometrial cancer and corrects abnormal bleeding.

An alternative approach is taking progesterone for seven to 10 days each month. This regulates your menstrual cycle and offers protection against endometrial cancer, but it doesn’t improve androgen levels.

Your doctor also may prescribe metformin (Glucophage, Glucophage XR), an oral medication for type 2 diabetes that treats insulin resistance. This drug is still being studied as a treatment for polycystic ovary syndrome, but research has demonstrated that it improves ovulation and may reduce androgen levels. However, doctors don’t yet know if metformin offers the same protection against endometrial cancer as does treatment with oral contraceptives or with progesterone alone.

Medications for reducing excessive hair growth
Your doctor may add a medication specifically targeted at countering the effects of excess androgen. Spironolactone (Aldactone) blocks the effects of androgen and reduces new androgen production. For those reasons, the drug isn’t recommended if you’re pregnant or planning to become pregnant. Spironolactone is also a diuretic and may cause you to urinate more frequently.

Your doctor might also prescribe eflornithine (Vaniqa), a prescription cream that slows facial hair growth in women. This medication is effective for about one-third of the women who use it. Avoid using this medication during pregnancy.

Medications for achieving pregnancy
To become pregnant, you may need a medication to trigger ovulation. Clomiphene (Clomid, Serophene) is an oral anti-estrogen medication that you take in the first part of your menstrual cycle. If clomiphene alone isn’t effective, your doctor may add metformin to help trigger ovulation.

A study published in the New England Journal of Medicine compared the use of clomiphene and metformin, as well as a combination of the two medications, for achieving pregnancy. The study found that clomiphene was significantly more effective at helping women conceive than was metformin alone. About 80 percent of women are able to conceive using clomiphene, and it’s estimated that 50 percent of women taking clomiphene have a baby.

If you don’t become pregnant using clomiphene and metformin, your doctor may recommend using gonadotropins — follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) medications that are administered by injection. Because many women with PCOS have elevated levels of LH, your doctor may recommend treatment with FSH alone.

With clomiphene or gonadotropins, the risk of multiple births — twins or more — is increased.

Surgery
If medications don’t help you become pregnant, your doctor rarely may recommend an outpatient surgery called laparoscopic ovarian drilling.

In this procedure, a surgeon makes a small incision in your abdomen and inserts a tube attached to a tiny camera (laparoscope). The camera provides the surgeon with detailed images of your ovaries and neighboring pelvic organs. The surgeon then inserts surgical instruments through other small incisions and uses electrical or laser energy to burn holes in enlarged follicles on the surface of the ovaries. The goal is to stimulate ovulation by reducing levels of LH and androgen hormones.

Hair removal
Several options besides prescription medications exist for hair removal. They include shaving, plucking and over-the-counter remedies such as waxes, gels, creams and lotions (depilatories). However, depilatories may irritate your skin, so follow package directions and on first use, apply the product to an inconspicuous area to determine if it’s suitable for you. The results may last several weeks, then you must repeat treatment.

Options for longer lasting hair removal include:

• Electrolysis. To permanently remove excess hair, some women undergo electrolysis in addition to medical therapy. A fine needle is inserted into the hair follicle and electric current is applied to kill the follicle. Because only one follicle can be treated at a time, this method isn’t useful for large areas of the body. Several treatments are usually necessary. Scarring or, rarely, skin infections may occur. Home electrolysis kits usually are ineffective because the hair follicle is deep in the skin, so seek care with an experienced, certified electrologist.
• Laser therapy. Laser hair removal systems use laser light — an intense, pulsating beam of light — to remove unwanted hair. Laser hair removal is effective on short, visible hair. Before the procedure, you shave the area to be treated, and allow it to grow to a stubble. Your doctor may use multiple treatments to target the affected areas. After several months, laser procedures permanently reduce one-third or more of the hair in the targeted area. Even after multiple treatments, however, you may experience some hair regrowth, although the new hair may be finer and lighter in color.

Lifestyle and home remedies

You may hear conflicting advice from media, support groups and health care professionals on the role of diet in weight management. Much of the disagreement focuses on carbohydrates.

Carbohydrates are long chains of glucose, a type of sugar. Your digestive system splits these chains into small sugar molecules that enter your bloodstream and trigger the release of insulin.

Low-fat, high-carbohydrate diets that have been popular in recent years may increase insulin levels, so some health and nutrition advocates advise women with polycystic ovary syndrome to follow a low-carbohydrate diet. However, a diet that calls for increased protein to compensate for decreased carbohydrates may spike your intake of saturated fats, elevating your blood cholesterol levels and increasing your risk of cardiovascular disease. Research hasn’t demonstrated that a diet high in protein offers more benefit to women with PCOS than does a diet high in carbohydrates.

Choose complex carbohydrates
Carbohydrates provide many important nutrients, so don’t severely restrict them. Instead, choose complex carbohydrates, which are high in fiber. The more fiber in a food, the more slowly it’s digested and the more slowly your blood sugar levels rise. High-fiber carbohydrates include whole-grain breads and cereals, whole-wheat pasta, bulgur, barley, brown rice and beans. Limit less healthy, simple carbohydrates such as soda, excess fruit juice, cake, candy, ice cream, pies, cookies and doughnuts.

Additional research may determine which specific dietary approach is best, but it’s clear that losing weight by reducing total calorie intake benefits the overall health of women with polycystic ovary syndrome. Work with your doctor and registered dietitian to determine the best dietary plan for you.

Get your exercise
Exercise helps lower your blood sugar levels. For women with polycystic ovary syndrome, an increase in daily physical activity and participation in a regular exercise regimen are essential for treating or preventing insulin resistance and for helping weight-control efforts.

http://www.niams.nih.gov/Health_Info/Gout/gout_ff.asp

Publication Date: March 2005
Revised March 2007

What Is Gout?
Fast Facts: An Easy-to-Read Series of Publications for the Public

What Is Gout?

Gout is one of the most painful forms of arthritis. It occurs when too much uric acid builds up in the body. The buildup of uric acid can lead to:

• Sharp uric acid crystal deposits in joints, often in the big toe
• Deposits of uric acid (called tophi) that look like lumps under the skin
• Kidney stones from uric acid crystals in the kidneys.

For many people, the first attack of gout occurs in the big toe. Often, the attack wakes a person from sleep. The toe is very sore, red, warm, and swollen.

Gout can cause:

• Pain
• Swelling
• Redness
• Heat
• Stiffness in joints.

In addition to the big toe, gout can affect the:

• Insteps
• Ankles
• Heels
• Knees
• Wrists
• Fingers
• Elbows.

A gout attack can be brought on by stressful events, alcohol or drugs, or another illness. Early attacks usually get better within 3 to 10 days, even without treatment. The next attack may not occur for months or even years.

What Causes Gout?

Gout is caused by the buildup of too much uric acid in the body. Uric acid comes from the breakdown of substances called purines. Purines are found in all of your body’s tissues. They are also in many foods, such as liver, dried beans and peas, and anchovies.

Normally, uric acid dissolves in the blood. It passes through the kidneys and out of the body in urine. But uric acid can build up in the blood when:

• The body increases the amount of uric acid it makes.
• The kidneys do not get rid of enough uric acid.
• A person eats too many foods high in purines.

When uric acid levels in the blood are high, it is called hyperuricemia. Most people with hyperuricemia do not develop gout. But if excess uric acid crystals form in the body, gout can develop.

You are more likely to have gout if you:

• Have family members with the disease
• Are a man
• Are overweight
• Drink too much alcohol
• Eat too many foods rich in purines
• Have an enzyme defect that makes it hard for the body to break down purines
• Are exposed to lead in the environment
• Have had an organ transplant
• Use some medicines such as diuretics, aspirin, cyclosporine, or levodopa
• Take the vitamin niacin.

How Is Gout Diagnosed?

Your doctor will ask about your symptoms, medical history, and family history of gout. Signs and symptoms of gout include:

• Hyperuricemia (high level of uric acid in the blood)
• Uric acid crystals in joint fluid
• More than one attack of acute arthritis
• Arthritis that develops in 1 day, producing a swollen, red, and warm joint
• Attack of arthritis in only one joint, usually the toe, ankle, or knee.

To confirm a diagnosis of gout, your doctor may draw a sample of fluid from an inflamed joint to look for crystals associated with gout.

How Is Gout Treated?

Doctors use medicines to treat an acute attack of gout, including:

• Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
• Corticosteroids, such as prednisone
• Colchicine, which works best when taken within the first 12 hours of an acute attack.

Sometimes doctors prescribe NSAIDs or colchicine in small daily doses to prevent future attacks. There are also medicines that lower the level of uric acid in the blood.

What Can People With Gout Do to Stay Healthy?

Some things that you can do to stay healthy are:

• Take the medicines your doctor prescribes as directed.
• Tell your doctor about all the medicines and vitamins you take.
• Plan followup visits with your doctor.
• Maintain a healthy, balanced diet. Avoid foods that are high in purines, and drink plenty of water.
• Exercise regularly and maintain a healthy body weight. Ask your doctor about how to lose weight safely. Fast or extreme weight loss can increase uric acid levels in the blood.

What Research Is Being Done on Gout?

Scientists are studying:

• Which NSAIDs are the most effective treatments for gout
• Optimal dosages of medications for gout
• New medicines that safely lower uric acid in the blood and reduce symptoms
• New therapies that block a chemical called tumor necrosis factor
• Enzymes that break down purines in the body
• The role of foods and certain vitamins
• The role of genetics and environmental factors
• The interactions of cells involved in acute gout attacks.

Scientists are also studying the role of genetics and environmental factors in hyperuricemia and gout.

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/tutorials/gout/htm/index.htm

For More Information on Gout and Other Related Conditions:

National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS)
Information Clearinghouse
National Institutes of Health

1 AMS Circle
Bethesda,  MD 20892-3675
Phone: 301-495-4484
Toll Free: 877-22-NIAMS (226-4267)
TTY: 301–565–2966
Fax: 301-718-6366
Email: NIAMSinfo@mail.nih.gov
Website: http://www.niams.nih.gov

The information in this publication was summarized in easy-to-read format from information in a more detailed NIAMS publication. To order the Gout Q&A full-text version, please contact NIAMS using the contact information above. To view the complete text or to order online, visit http://www.niams.nih.gov.

http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/06/27/2288102.htm

Animation advances helping children to walk

By Maria Hatzakis

Queensland Health says advances in animation technology are helping children with walking difficulties.

Dr Robyn Grote from the Royal Children’s Hospital in Brisbane says movement analysis, used to create Hollywood animations, is being used at its Gait Laboratory to treat conditions like cerebral palsy and spina bifida.

Dr Grote says the process involves placing reflective markers on the child and using cameras to create a three-dimensional recording of their movement.

“You cannot see with your own eye the third-dimension unless you are suspended from the ceiling or lying underneath the patient, you normally only see front, back or side,” she said.

“The motion analysis system allows you to see rotations which we can’t visualise with our own naked eye, we might think that someone is moving sideways when in fact they’re rotating.

“So that’s the advantage that we know really what the movement aberration is caused by.”

Dr Grote says the Gait Laboratory helps determine the extent of complications.

“This means a patient’s condition can be improved with one surgery instead of two or three, or it could mean the patient requires no surgery and there are other ways to improve their walking,” she said.

“This might include the use of physiotherapy or orthotics.”

Queensland Health says the Gait Laboratory completes about 125 complex three-dimensional gait analyses each year.

‘Film studio’

Dr Grote says it works similar to a film studio.

“We film a child, we have placed markers on them to define the child’s body to a mathematical model and then the child walks across what we call force plates,” she said.

“They’re like a set of scales but we have three sets and they measure in three dimensions.

“They also have attached to them little electrodes that measure electrical activity of muscles and so we get a really good scientific picture of how they are walking.”

Dr Grote says this scientific information is then taken and compared with data collected from children without walking difficulties.

“We’re in the process of collecting our own, it’s called typically developing database so that’s a project that’s ongoing,” she said.

“We need to look at our children from Queensland and make sure that we have a Queensland norm and we see how they should be for their age.

“That database will have children like 10-year-olds, 11-year-olds and that, so we make sure that we are aiming when we do recommend an intervention to achieve a normal range for that age group.”

Surgery data

Teenager Keegan McCluskey, from Yeppoon in central Queensland, has spastic diplegic cerebral palsy and has undergone three-dimensional gait analysis three times.

Dr Grote says the 12-year-old was first assessed in 2006 and it was recommended he undergo single-event multi-level surgery, which he did last year and has just had his 12-month review.

She says the data collected at the review will be compared to data collected a year ago to see if the surgery achieved what was planned and consider any recommendations for further treatment.

His mother, Madeline McCluskey, says she is grateful to have had access to the technology.

“Because we’re from central Queensland, if we weren’t able to come down here and use this facility he would have had surgery a number of times,” she said

“I think we would have been behind the eight-ball a little bit as to what he should be working on and that sort of thing.

“They’ve been able to do a number of surgeries in one hit so he hasn’t had to go for a number of different operations.

“But each time we come down here it gives us different things for him to be able to work on to improve his walking and his walking’s improved a hundred-fold since the operation 12 months ago.”

Technology expanding

Dr Grote says the laboratory has started an upper limb motion analysis project to expand the technology’s use to arms.

She says developments in animation technology could help achieve this.

“Hollywood has actually helped us because the evolution of smaller markers was a consequence of their requirement to do special effects and to do animation,” she said.

“They also do facial expressions so the markers that were designed, people may have up to 20 markers on their face.

“They got the technology so that you could recognise a very small marker and that’s useful for us because children’s’ upper limbs are small and the markers that used to be used on legs are too large, they would dominate the hand not actually measure the actual movement.”

“Motion analysis started initially as a medical tool and then sort of Hollywood has picked it up and refined it and done the if you like the software development which is now assisting medicine.”

http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/06/28/2288529.htm

Govt announces $300m for transitional care

Sick elderly people who are forced into nursing homes prematurely are expected to benefit from changes announced by the Federal Government today.

Minister for Ageing Justine Elliot says the Government is honouring its election promise to provide transitional care for older people to help them go home from hospital rather than to a nursing home.

She says the places will be available around the country including rural and regional areas.

“If older Australians, after being in a hospital, they want to get back to their home as soon as possible, rather than going to a nursing home prematurely, then we want to make sure that happens,” she said.

“It’s about making sure older Australians retain their independence.”

More than 1,700 older Australians are expected to benefit from the program every year.

Ms Elliot says the program will cost almost $300 million.

http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/06/29/2289041.htm

Mobile phone CPR instructions ‘could save lives’

In what is being billed as a world first, instructions for life-saving CPR can now be downloaded to a mobile phone under a new initiative developed by the Red Cross.

People will be able to download animated instructions from a website onto their phone on how to revive someone in an emergency.

The technology was developed by a Tasmanian company.

Red Cross spokeswoman Virginia Leafe says the service is no substitute for first aid training, but works as a potentially life-saving prompt.

“You download it from the Red Cross website,” she said.

“It will take a couple of minutes to download, and then you will have it on your phone and you press a button and with one button it starts and it goes through visually and speaking, how to do CPR.

“The idea is to download it before an emergency situation kicks in.”

http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/06/17/2277866.htm

ASEAN launches infectious diseases information site

The Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) has launched a new website for nations to compare notes on infectious diseases threatening the region.

The ASEAN Plus Three Countries website will help prevent deadly disease outbreaks by easing the exchange of information between ASEAN members and China, South Korea and Japan, the regional bloc said in a statement.

The website is being coordinated by Indonesia’s health ministry and will be jointly maintained by ASEAN, it said.

“Multilateral coordination which is mutually beneficial should be developed and maintained so it can continue, including through information exchange among nations,” Indonesian Health Minister Siti Fadilah Supari was quoted as saying by state news agency Antara.

The minister’s backing of the website comes despite her highly publicised reticence over sharing information on the deadly bird flu virus.

Ms Supari has angered many abroad by refusing to routinely share virus samples with the World Health Organisation, saying she fears rich nations will use them to create vaccines unaffordable to Indonesians.

Ms Supari also said this month her ministry would no longer announce individual bird flu deaths to the media and has given conflicting statements about how often the public would be told of deaths.

Indonesia is the country worst-hit by the bird flu virus, with at least 108 people believed to have been killed by the virus. The most recent reported case, a 15-year-old girl, has not been confirmed by the minister.

http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/06/18/2277900.htm

Nurse practitioners ready for a bigger role in health system

By Ged Kearney

(Reuters: Christian Hartmann, file photo)

<!–
if (typeof showPhotos == ‘function’) showPhotos(’2277900-mediarss.xml’);
–>

Nurse practitioners may well be the answer to Australia’s health concerns.

For Australians to see the benefits of real and sustainable health reform there must be major reform to the way health services are funded and delivered. This means putting nursing and midwifery at the centre of decisions in health and health reform.

Vital to a full and effective utilisation of the nursing and midwifery workforce is the role of nurse practitioner, yet they are unable to operate to their full scope of practice due to current funding barriers.

Nurse practitioners are registered nurses and midwives with advanced educational preparation and experience who are authorised to practice in an expanded nursing role. There are currently around 300 nurse practitioners in Australia who can be found working in illness prevention, chronic disease management, aged care, emergency care, wound care, diabetes education, sexual health and rural health.

These nurses and midwives seek candidacy through the nursing regulatory authority in their state or territory and must undergo rigorous review to be authorised to practice as a nurse practitioner. Most have at least five years in their chosen area of practice post-registration and at least seven to nine years study, inclusive of masters-level university qualification.

Nurse practitioners have been shown to bring immense benefit to areas of need, improving quality of and accessibility to health care services for all Australians whether in rural and remote Australia or in residential aged care facility. The benefits they bring have been well documented across Australia and indeed throughout the world.

Programs like the Walwa Bush Nursing Clinic and the ACT aged care nurse practitioner pilot provide evidence that nurse practitioners offer health care efficiency and improve patient care outcomes.

The Alfred Hospital in Melbourne recently conducted a study that demonstrated nurse practitioners operating out of the emergency department had reduced waiting times, staff stress, and patient returns and improved patient outcomes and satisfaction.

Nurse practitioners bring greater efficiency and quality of patient care to Australia’s health system, but are severely limited in their practice because of outdated funding structures.

While nurse practitioners are authorised to refer patients to other health professionals and prescribe some medications, there is currently no mechanism that allows patients to claim any subsidy from the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) or Medical Benefits Scheme (MBS), as is the case for medical practitioners.

This is a massive disincentive for patients who can be forced to pay hundreds of dollars more for prescriptions or medical tests when they are ordered by a nurse or midwife practitioner as opposed to a GP. Subsequently they are currently under-utilised and left feeling under-valued.

Unless the Federal Government gives the patients of nurse practitioners access to pharmaceutical rebates they will continue to be under-utilised to the detriment of all Australians.

In addition to the obvious benefits to health care consumers in Australia, the role of nurse practitioner offers experienced nurses greater access to career opportunities in clinical practice. Some nurses do not want to move out of clinical nursing into education or management.

The opportunity to become a nurse practitioner offers an incentive to remain in the profession whilst providing expert nursing care. The regulatory process must be reviewed to facilitate advanced practice by suitably qualified nurses and midwives and improve community access to care.

Now that the Federal Government has put health reform on the agenda the time is right to better utilise the expertise of these skilled practitioners, enabling greater access to and equity within the public health system and offering nurses and midwives greater opportunity for career development, encouraging them to stay or if they have left, to return to the profession.

Ged Kearney is the federal secretary of the Australian Nursing Federation.

http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/06/18/2278403.htm

‘Millions more needed’ to stave off dementia crisis

A leading scientific researcher says Australia needs to increase funding for dementia now in order to avoid a health care crisis in the future.

A report released today says annual funding for research should be increased to $36 million a year to tackle the growing dementia epidemic.

It also recommends that dementia be included as a national health priority.

Report co-author Professor Henry Brodaty says there are more than 200,000 people with dementia at the moment, but the number could be 730,000 by 2050.

“Australia is ageing, the aged are ageing, so the old are getting older, so we really have to think about the best way to tackle this,” he said.

“For every dollar spent in research, the Australian Society for Medical Research estimated we get a $5 return.

“It makes sense to try to understand how to tackle this better.

“If you compare research for dementia compared to other chronic conditions, it’s well below those,” Professor Brodaty added.

“If we compare it on the disability-adjusted life years which is a measure of disease burden, we have only a fraction of what’s being funded in other conditions.”

http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/06/18/2278999.htm

MSF seeks Darwin recruits

The medical organisation Medecins Sans Frontiers (MSF) is running a recruitment drive in Darwin this week.

The group, also known as Doctors without Borders, recruit more than 2,000 doctors, nurses and support staff world-wide each year.

Last year 111 positions were filled by Australians and New Zealanders.

Tanya Davies says Medecins Sans Frontiers has its eye on Northern Territory doctors and nurses who would be ideal for a position.

“There’s a lot of people in the Territory that might be looking to doing something different for a while and might be interested in volunteering,” she said.

“MSF is looking to get people who are interested in people going overseas with them for nine months.”

She says a stint overseas may actually renew the enthusiasm of Territory doctors and nurses.

“This is something I see for people who are in the NT who need a bit of a break and want to come back,” she said.

“I was working for two years in Central Australia at Utopia … [I] got a bit burnt out, needed a break, went overseas with MSF which was a wonderful experience and came back.”

http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/06/19/2279174.htm

Call for review of prison medication

Mental Health advocates say there has to be a review of the way medicines are distributed in prisons.

A coronial inquest has found that found a lack of anti-depressant medication contributed in part to serial killer David Birnie’s decision to take his own life.

Birnie hanged himself inside his cell at Casuarina Prison in October 2005. He had not received his antidepressant medication for three days before his death.

Anne White from the WA Association for Mental Health says an urgent review is needed.

“One would hope that the prison system would take on board the findings of the coroner and act on it with a great deal of urgency because who knows who else is in the system who may in fact be in a similar situation,” she said.

The current policy requires prisoners to have both a valid prescription and authorisation from the Director of Health Services to receive medication.